CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
Enthalpy change, DH:- heat change of chemical reaction under const pressure (kJ/mol)
Standard conditions: temp: 25°C, pressure: 1 atm or 101325 Pa
Standard enthalpy change, DH:- enthalpy change measured under standard conditions
Endothermic reaction
-heat absorbed > DH +ve
-heat content of products higher than reactants (heat absorbed)

Ea: activation energy
DH: enthalpy change

Exothermic reaction
-heat given off > DH -ve
-heat content of products lower than reactants (heat released)

Ea: activation energy
DH: enthalpy change

Standard enthalpy change of reaction, DHr : heat change when molar quantities of reactants(specified by balance equation) react to for products under standard conditions
Standard enthalpy change of formation, DHf : heat change when 1 mole of product formed from elements in the most stable state under standard conditions
Standard enthalpy change of combustion, DHc: heat change (exothermic only) when 1 mole of element / cpd is completely burnt in excess oxygen under standard conditions

Hess's Law (conservation of heat energy)
-states that total enthalpy change of a chemical reaction is the same regardless of intermediate steps provided initial and final conditions are constant
A + B >(DH1)> C >(DH2)> D >(DH3)> E
A + B >(DH4)> E
By Hess's Law: DH1 + DH2 + DH3 = DH4

Determination of enthalpy change of reaction
Heat evolved = mass × specific heat capacity × Dtemp = mcDT = VrcDT (DT = initial - final temp)
enthalpy change of reaction = heat evolved / mol of substance M = VrcDT/n kJ/mol (of M)
assumptions;
(1) -density of solution = density of water = 1g/cm3
(2) -csolution = cwater = 4.2J/(g°C)

standard enthalpy change of neutralization, DHn: heat evolved when 1 mole of H+(aq) from acid reacts with 1 mole of OH-(aq) from base to form 1 mole of water under standard conditions of 1 atmosphere & 25°C
assumptions; (1)dilute sol so that
   -density of solution = density of water = 1g/cm3
   -csolution = cwater = 4.2J/(g°C)
(2)heat loss by conduction is negligible
standard enthalpy change of neutralisation with:
strong acid & strong base
-always constant [-57.3kJ/mol (of H2O formed)] as molecules are 100% dissociated to ions > heat change only from formation of H2O molecules (no energy used to dissociate molecules)
weak acid / weak base
-less than -57.3kJ/mol (of water formed) as molecules not fully ionised > heat energy absorbed to dissociate molecules

Born-Haber cycle for formation of ionic solid cpd

DHsub, enthalpy change of sublimation of element: heat absorbed to convert solid element into 1 mole of gaseous atom
M(s) >(DHsub)> M(g)

[M(s) >(DHsub)> M(g) = M(s) >(DHfusion)> M(l) >(DHvap)> M(g)
DHsub = DHfusion + DHvap = enthalphy change of (fusion of solid M+ vaporization liquid M)
DHsub can be also called enthalpy change of atomization,DHatomisation: energy absorbed to change a subs from solid, liquid or gaseous state into 1 mole of gaseous atoms; M(s/l/g) > M(g)
for gaseous diatomic molecules, X2: DHatomisation = ½ bond energy]

DHIE, 1st ionisation energy: min energy absorbed to remove 1 mole of most loosely bound valence electrons in ground state from 1 mole of isolated, gaseous atoms to form 1 mole of isolated gaseous singly-charged positive ions
   M(g) - e- >(DHIE)> M+(g)
Electron affinity, DHEA: energy evolved when 1 mole of valence electrons is added to 1 mole of isolated gaseous atoms to from 1 mole of isolated, gaseous singly-charge negative ions
X(g) + e- > X-(g)
1st EA- form univalent anion from neutral atom: exothermic (valence electrons added to form anion)
2nd EA- form divalent anion from univalent anion : endothermic (valence electrons added to anion > energy absorbed to overcome repulsion)
Lattice energy, DHL: energy evolved when isolated, gaseous anions & cations combine to form 1 mole of ionic solid
   M+(g) + X-(g) >(DHL)> M+X-(s)
Factors affecting lattice energy
Charges of ions:
greater # of charges > stronger electrostatic force of attraction > greater LE
Ionic radii of ions: smaller radius > stronger electrostatic force of attraction > greater LE

Enthalpy changes of dissolution of ionic solid

Enthalpy change of solution, DHsolution: energy change when 1 mole of ionic solid dissolved in such an amt of water that further dilution causes no more heat change (solution of infinite dilution)
M+X-(s) + aq >(DHsolution)> M+(aq) + X-(aq)
Enthalpy change of hydration, DHhyd: energy evolve when 1 mole of gaseous ions is hydrated in water to form aqueous ions
M+(g) + aq >(DHhyd)> M+(aq)


Factors affecting enthalpy change of hydration
Charges of ions:
greater # of charges > stronger electrostatic force of attraction > greater HE
Ionic radii of ions: smaller radius > stronger electrostatic force of attraction > greater HE

Bond energy, DHBE (bond enthalpy / bond dissociation energy)
(1)for a diatomic molecule:- energy absorbed to dissociate 1 mole of the X-Y covalent bonds of gaseous XY to form gaseous X & Y atoms
   XY(g) >(DHBE)> X(g) + Y(g)
(2)for a polyatomic molecule:- average energy absorbed to dissociate 1 mole of the X-Y covalent bonds in gaseous XYn to form gaseous X & Y atoms
   XYn(g) >(DH1)> XYn-1(g) + Y(g)
   XYn-1(g) >(DH2)> XYn-2(g) + Y(g)
   ........
   XY(g) >(DHn)> X(g) + Y(g)
   bond energy = (DH1 + DH2 + ... + DHn)/n
DHBE increases w/:
-decrease in bond length
-polarity of bond (more polar bond > greater DHBE)

The more exothermic the reaction > the more readily it occurs


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